xxxii | The Formation of the Old Testament
EARLY OLD TESTAMENT COLLECTIONS
Likely between 400 – 200 BC , some Jews began more widely to recognize the importance and divine origin of many other prophetic Old Testament Scriptures in addition to the Law of Moses . For example , 2 Kings 17:13 references both the Law and some Prophets : “ The Lord warned Israel and Judah through all his prophets and seers . . . ‘ in accordance with the entire Law that I commanded your ancestors to obey and that I delivered to you through my servants the prophets .’” Although it is unclear which prophets 2 Kings 17:13 refers to , the verse indicates that some prophets were recognized by around 400 BC ( compare 2Ki 17:37 , where the admonition to keep the law of God is clear ).
The Deuterocanonical book of Sirach ( also called Ecclesiasticus ) identifies the prophets that were influential among the Jews between 200 – 180 BC . Sirach contains a reference to many of Israel ’ s heroes , including prophets such as Moses , Nathan , David , Elijah , Elisha , Isaiah , Jeremiah , Ezekiel , Job and Nehemiah ( Sirach 49:10 ). Sirach also includes a reference to the book of the Twelve Minor Prophets and Nehemiah ( Sirach 49:6,8,10,13 ). It is unlikely that Sirach would have known of the heroes he listed without being familiar with the books that tell their stories , suggesting that the books that contain these stories were already accepted as authoritative by his lifetime . Thus , by the late third century or early second century BC , the Israelites recognized many ( if not most ) of the more familiar Old Testament books as Scripture .
The early first-century BC Deuterocanonical text 2 Maccabees records Judas Maccabeus ’ actions after the Greek king Antiochus IV Epiphanes ’ destroyed many Jewish sacred books and committed other heinous acts , stating : “ Judas also collected all the books that had been lost on account of the war that had come upon us , and they are in our possession . So if you have need of them , send people to get them for you ” ( 2 Macc 2:14 – 15 nrsv ). It is unclear which sacred books 2 Maccabees refers to , but 1 Maccabees 1:56 suggests the collection involved at least the Law : “ The books of the law that they found they tore to pieces and burned with fire ” ( nrsv ). It ’ s unknown , though , whether “ books of the law ” refers to the Pentateuch ( Genesis — Deuteronomy ) or to all of the Jewish sacred Scriptures .
It is certain that collections of the Jewish Scriptures were circulating in the land of Israel ( Palestine ) in the second and first centuries BC ; however , it is unknown what writings were included in these collections . All of the books that compose the Hebrew Bible except Esther and Nehemiah were found at Qumran among the Dead Sea Scrolls ( dating ca . 250 BC – AD 50 ). In the Dead Sea Scrolls ’ document known as Miqsat Maase Hatorah , the Jewish sacred writings are described as the “ book of Moses , the books of the prophets , and David ” ( likely a reference to the Psalms ). Miqsat Maase Hatorah also references the “ annals of each generation ,” which may be a reference to the Historical Books of 1 – 2 Sam uel , 1 – 2 Kings , and 1 – 2 Chron icles . Although the specific books of each of these categories are not identified , Miqsat Maase Hatorah shows that the Scriptures were grouped into specific , authoritative collections .
At the same time , many other religious books besides those that currently make up the Hebrew Bible were read and circulated among Jews ( and later Chris tians ) during the first centuries BC and AD . The Hebrew Bible writings among the Dead Sea Scrolls were found alongside many additional religious texts : Of the more than 900 manuscripts discovered , about 700 were non-Biblical works .