AGAINST BUREAUCRACY armies during the First and Second World Wars , finding forceful and famous expression in the 1933 Truppenführung — the German army manual for troop command . 2 Articulating the mission command idea , the Truppenführung underlines the strategic value of individual soldiers amidst the confusion of conflict , arguing , “ the emptiness of the battlefield requires soldiers who can think and act independently , who can make calculated decisions and daring use of every situation .” 3 In its discussion of Auftragstaktik , the Truppenführung sets down views that “ would still be considered radical in many of the world ’ s armies today .” 4
Written largely by Generals Ludwig Beck , Werner von Fritsch , and Carl-Heinrich von Stülpnagel , the Truppenführung established that individual soldiers would be expected to have a clear understanding of circumstances so they could act on their own initiative in accordance with larger strategic intent . Giving doctrinal weight to ideas known later by U . S . Marine Corps Gen . Charles Krulak ’ s colloquialism — the “ strategic corporal ”— the editors of the Truppenführung recall Hans von Seeckt , who argued , “ The principal thing is to increase the responsibilities of the individual man , particularly his independence of action , and thereby to increase the efficiency of the entire army .” 5
But , while ideas of initiative and enterprise resonate in military lore , they have become essentially rhetorical since militaries have grown more centralized , less adaptable , more prescriptive , and more bureaucratic . Honeycombed by legalism , avoidance behavior , and inconclusive language , bureaucracy cultivates irresolution , and excuse . Bureaucracy suffocates personal trustworthiness , which should distinguish leaders , and the independent responsibility that hallmarks effective soldiers .
Merit and Responsibility
Richard Gabriel explains why bureaucratic thinking is antithetic to that of the military , arguing it is “ nonsense when … institutions attempt to substitute bureaucratic procedures for ethical judgment and responsibility . [ The end result is ] a reliance upon bureaucratic rules and mechanisms of control , while undercutting the soldier ’ s opportunities to exercise ethical judgment .” 6
Arguing against bureaucratic thinking , Gabriel points to what Michel Foucault called the “ subtle , calculated technology of subjugation … the separation , coordination and supervision of tasks [ that ] constitutes an operational schema of power .” 7 This is bureaucratic panopticism , designed “ to ensure the prompt obedience of the people and the most absolute authority of the magistrates ,” which Alasdair MacIntyre understood to depend for success upon disguise and concealment . 8 Valued for calculable data , for seeming impartiality , and for the centralization of its control , bureaucracy commodifies people and dissolves moral autonomy .
The bureaucracy ’ s oppressive attention to marginal detail is in parallel with the technical evolution of communications networks , which have made it possible and appealing for headquarters to exercise control to a meddlesome degree . Bureaucratic centralization means information from the seat of events is passed upward to headquarters , which issue direction . This dissolves the autonomy of individuals and , as Jim Storr observes , is fundamentally unconstructive since the amount of information passed between a group of people increases roughly with the square of the number involved ( a consequence of many-to-many information strategies ), while the ability to deal with it increases only linearly . 9
Red-Tape Routine
Inherently centralizing and controlling , red tape has the overwhelming effect of inhibiting human initiative and responsibility . There comes to be a Kuhnian cultural gestalt or paradigm . 10 Samuel Huntington describes a “ professional mind ,” which structures distinctive and persistent habits of thought and action — framing a worldview from within which bureaucratic behavior is rationalized . 11
Pervasive and suppressive , bureaucracy induces habits of wooden compliance . Soldiers are duped by a culture of compulsory consensus into thinking character equals rule
Richard Adams holds doctoral , master ’ s , and first-class honours degrees from the University of Western Australia , a master ’ s degree from the University of New South Wales , and a bachelor ’ s degree from the University of Tasmania . Formerly an Australian Fulbright Scholar to Yale University , he is presently researching at the University of New South Wales .
MILITARY REVIEW January-February 2017 9