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difficulty of finding general explanations for terrorism and contends that it is possible to distinguish different types of variables as a starting point for further research on causal relations. Her work differentiates between three groups of variables: strategic, structural, and psychological. In an effort to increase understanding, let’s look more closely at the possible motivations of terrorists. A brief review of the academic literature suggests a wide range of theories articulated by scholars in hopes of explaining the motivations leading to radicalization and terrorist activity. These can be categorized broadly as sociological motivations and psychological motivations. SOCIOLOGICAL EXPLANATIONS A ccording to Jeff Victoroff, the sociological factors might include relative deprivation (i.e., poverty), oppression, and/or national culture factors. The first of these sociological theories is what scholars refer to as deprivation theory, which suggests that economic disparities and poverty causes terrorism. More recently, increasing differences between the material welfare of the haves and 38 | JOURNEY OF HOPE have-nots have been postulated to provoke a new era of political violence that will accelerate as globalization not only creates new foci of poverty, but facilitates communication among those who perceive themselves to be the victims of globalization. A second theory proposed, also within the sociological camp, focuses on the issue of oppression, which in their view provokes political violence. A final theory from the sociological perspective includes what scholars have referred to as the national and cultural motivations of terrorism. PSYCHOLOGICAL EXPLANATIONS In contrast to sociological theories that emphasize factors influencing the behavior of an entire group, psychological theories of terrorist behavior primarily emphasize individual factors. The first of these psychological theories focuses on identity. It has been proposed that candidates for terrorism are young people lacking self-esteem who have a strong or even desperate need to consolidate their identities. A second psychological approach places its attention on what Harvard psychiatrist Robert J. Lifton referred to as absolutist or apocalyptic theory. In it, he suggests that cults and apocalyptic groups envision mass destruction as a path toward replacing the corrupt world with a pure new social order. The third psychological theory deals with humiliation — and the consequent internal pressure for revenge — and has been hypothesized to drive terrorist violence. Revenge for humiliation by an oppressor is, in fact, an ancient cultural tradition with direct links to the current violence in the Middle East. A fourth theory on terrorism focuses on group psychology within idiosyncratic subcultures that coalesce in reaction to circumstances they perceive as intolerable. For these scholars, membership in a terrorist organization offers disciples a heady liquor of a well-defined personal role, a righteous purpose, the opportunity for revenge for perceived humiliations, and the lifting of constraints on the expression of otherwise prohibited behaviors, all of which free the member from personal responsibility for attacks on out-groups. RADICAL JIHADISTS What do we know and what could be said about radical jihadists? A striking similarity among many radicalized jihadists is how little they actually know about Islam and the Qur’an. Those who join violent extremist groups rarely have formal training or disciplined religious teaching. In fact, in most cases they have no more than a rudimentary understanding often shaped by online sources or talking to extremists online. Akil Awan, a lecturer in political violence and terrorism at Royal Holloway, University of London, suggests that those drawn to jihadism usually are raised in largely secular households or possess only a rudimentary grasp of Islam that rarely extends to religious practice. Research shows in many cases these would-be jihadists were hardly strict adherents to Islam’s major tenets before turning to violence. Awan points out this crisis of identity often leads minority individuals to a dislocated sense of self, one characterized by alienation from the mainstream and parental cultures. These susceptible youth who succumb to emotional and psychological schizophrenia soon begin to feel a sense of increased isolation, of not belonging to eith \