Journal on Policy and Complex Systems
quasi-scientific , or even just intuitive . A heart ’ s pumping functionality is emergent in this sense .
• Fabricated emergence occurs when an entity implements a specification .
In both cases , the realized / implemented properties are characterized independently of the properties of the materials of the constituents .
3 . How Emergence Happens
Emergence has traditionally been applied to entities and properties ( O ’ Connor
& Wong , 2015 ). In general , structure and organization provide the keys to new entities and properties .
3.1 Negative Interaction Energy
We know that a hydrogen atom consists of a proton and an electron . Why
do they stay together as an entity ? The answer has to do with what physicists call interaction energy ( Strassler , 2012 ).
Interaction energy , which is born from interactions among fields and particles , can be positive or negative . Positive / negative interaction energy corresponds to what one may intuitively think of as a force pushing things apart or pulling things together . The repulsive / attractive force between two objects with the same / different electric charge is understood in terms of positive / negative interaction energy — similarly for gravity . The attractive force between two objects with mass is a consequence of negative interactive energy . As Strassler ( 2012 ) says ,
The possibility that interaction energy can be negative is the single most important fact that allows for ... structure in the universe , from atomic nuclei to human bodies to galaxies .
How does this relate to the hydrogen atom ? When the magnitude of the negative interaction energy between a proton and an electron reaches a high enough level , the two become a hydrogen atom . 11 The mass of a hydrogen atom is the sum of the masses of its proton and electron plus the mass equivalent to the interaction energy . Since the interaction energy is negative , the mass of a hydrogen atom is strictly less than the sum of the masses of a proton and an electron considered separately . Separating a hydrogen atom into its constituents , proton and electron , requires the addition of enough mass ( in the form of energy ) to make up for the negative interactive energy .
This framework explains , for example , how two hydrogen atoms and an oxygen atom release energy when they come together to create a water molecule . The released energy matches the negative interaction energy that remains after the
11 One must also be concerned about kinetic energy and interaction energy from another source .
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