Journal on Policy and Complex Systems
Software systems may have hundreds of types . A primary activity of modern software development is the definition of new types . Although everyone in any creative discipline produces some emergent phenomena , software developers create emergence as their primary product .
When seen in this light , nature too has the means for similar creativity . In software , creativity is intentional ; in nature , it is a matter of random combinations that either persists or does not . The underlying process seems similar : create something new by putting existing things together , add some functions , and see what you have . Open-ended type creation mechanisms in both nature and software enable extraordinary creativity .
3.6 Energy-independent Binding Mechanisms
This section examines two other binding mechanisms .
Topological Constraints
Consider two interlocked rings . They are bound together into an entity . Yet no inter-ring forces bind one ring to the other . One can make chains of such rings as in a necklace . A chain-link fence uses the same principle . A fascinating case involves Borromean rings . “ The three rings taken together are inseparable , but remove any one ring and the other two fall apart ” ( Cromwell , Beltrami , & Rampichini , 1998 ). In chemistry , such structures are called mechanically interlinked molecular assembly ( MIMAs ) ( van Dongen , et al ., 2013 ). Such structures are bound together topologically and without energetics . Other examples of topological ( or at least structural ) binding include key rings , ball joints , hook and eye latches , etc .
Gravity-assisted Binding
The earth ’ s gravity provides the bulk of the negative interaction energy in constructs such as a traditional arch or a fastener-free bridge . Friction that involves electromagnetic negative interaction energy plays a role , but gravity ’ s negative interaction energy provides the primary binding mechanism . What is distinctive is that the gravity is attraction to the earth , which is not part of the arch itself . This is similar to symbolic entities that rely on external forces to keep them together .
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